Δευτέρα 1/2/2021 (21:00) – Webinar “The effect of caffeine at the performance of Triathletes and endurance athletes”
Διαδικτυακό Δια δραστικό Σεμινάριο «Η επίδραση της Καφεΐνης στην Απόδοση των αθλητών/ -τριών Τριάθλου και των αθλητών αντοχής
Κείμενο & Παρουσίαση Σεμιναρίου: Γιάννης Ψαρέλης, BSc, MSc, MBA (προπονητής Τριάθλου) Email : smartsportcoach@hotmail.com -Κινητό : +30 693 71 70 260
www.triathlonworld.gr & www.triathlon.gr & www.triathloncoach.gr
Η επίδραση της Καφεΐνης στην απόδοση των Τριαθλητών
Τη Δευτέρα 1 Φεβρουαρίου (21:00) το ελληνικό Triathlon Lab διοργανώνει webinar για την επίδραση της Καφεΐνης στην αερόβια απόδοση και ιδιαίτερα την επίδραση της Καφεΐνης στους αθλητές και αθλήτριες τριάθλου.
- Υπάρχει σημαντική βελτίωση στην αερόβια απόδοση;
- Τι ποσότητα καφεΐνης πρέπει να πάρω και πόση ώρα πριν ή πότε κατά τη διάρκεια του αγώνα;
- Υπάρχουν παρενέργειες από την αθλητική χρήση καφεΐνης και πόσο σοβαρές είναι;
- Σε τι φυσιολογικούς μηχανισμούς οφείλεται η εργογόνος δράση της καφεΐνης;
- Η επίδραση είναι διαφορετική σε άντρες και γυναίκες;
- Ποια είναι τα αποτελέσματα σε αγώνες Τριάθλου από την χρήση Καφεΐνης;
- Ποια ερωτήματα δεν έχουμε ακόμα απαντήσει αναφορικά με την χρήση της καφεΐνης;
Η συμμετοχή στο webinar είναι δωρεάν. Για να συμμετέχει κάποιος αρκεί κάποιος να κατεβάσει τη δωρεάν εφαρμογή Zoom (zoom.us) και να χρησιμοποιήσει τον παρακάτω σύνδεσμο:
Στο πλαίσιο του webinar θα ανακοινωθούν και τα αποτελέσματα διαδικαστικής έρευνας που έχει διεξαχθεί σε αθλητές αντοχής (Τριαθλητές, Δρομείς, Ποδηλάτες) όλων των επιπέδων. Για να έχουμε ακόμα μεγαλύτερο δείγμα στις απαντήσεις παρακαλούμε τους αθλητές αντοχής (τριαθλητές, ποδηλάτες, δρομείς) να συμπληρώσουν το ερωτηματολόγιο (απαιτούνται λιγότερο από 2 λεπτά) με την χρήση του εξής συνδέσμου :
Διαμέσου της έρευνας μεταξύ άλλων θα δώσουμε απαντήσεις στα εξής ερωτήματα:
- Για ποιους λόγους καταναλώνουν ροφήματα καφέ οι ερασιτέχνες αθλητές αντοχής (τριάθλου, μαραθωνίου, ποδηλασίας, κολύμβησης κ.λπ), πόσο συχνά και τι ώρα μέσα στην ημέρα;
- Ποια είναι τα πιο δημοφιλή προϊόντα καφεΐνης στους αθλητές αντοχής;
- Ποια τα οφέλη και ποιες οι παρενέργειες που έχουν βιώσει από τη χρήση προϊόντων που περιέχουν καφεΐνη στην καθημερινότητά τους, στις προπονήσεις και τους αγώνες τους;
Εισαγωγή
Πολύ μεγάλος αριθμός επιστημονικών μελετών έχουν δείξει την αποτελεσματικότητα της χορήγησης καφεΐνης στην βελτίωση της αθλητικής απόδοσης ανεξάρτητα με την μορφή της άσκησης (αερόβια, αναερόβια, συνδυασμός). Η βιβλιογραφία είναι πολύ μεγάλη με την πρώτη σχετική μελέτη να χρονολογείται από το 1907. Όμως παρότι πλέον υπάρχουν αρκετές μετα-αναλύσεις που μας προσφέρουν καλή κατανόηση τόσο των εργογενών πλεονεκτημάτων, των επιπρόσθετων προπονητικών πλεονεκτημάτων και των παρενεργειών υπάρχουν αρκετά θέματα που χρειάζεται να διερευνηθούν μεταξύ των οποίων και τα παρακάτω:
- Τη διαφορετική επίδραση της καφεΐνης σε άντρες και γυναίκες αθλητές.
- Τη διαφορετική επίδραση ανάλογα με την ώρα της ημέρας
- Την επίδραση της καφεΐνης στο προ αγωνιστικό άγχος και την προπονητική και αγωνιστική αποκατάσταση.
- Την επίδραση της καφεΐνης σε κορυφαίους αθλητές.
Όπως θα φανεί και παρακάτω από έρευνα η καφεΐνη έχει την υψηλότερη διείσδυση από τα αθλήματα.
Οδηγίες λήψης
Οι πιο συνηθισμένες οδηγίες είναι να λαμβάνεται μία μέτρια ποσότητα καφεΐνης 3-6 mg/kg κοντά στα 60 λεπτά πριν την προσπάθεια/ αγώνα. Μεγαλύτερες δόσεις π.χ. 9-13mg/kg δεν φαίνεται να έχουν επιπρόσθετη επίδραση ενώ αυξάνουν σημαντικά την πιθανότητα ανεπιθύμητων παρενέργειών.
Φυσικά η εξατομίκευση πρέπει να είναι ο μοναδικός οδηγός για τους αθλητές.
Μηχανισμοί Δράσης
Έχουν προταθεί διάφοροι μηχανισμοί δράσης της καφεΐνης που επιχειρούν να εξηγήσουν πως προκαλείται η βελτίωση της αθλητικής απόδοσης. Ο πιο σημαντικός είναι αυτός που αναφέρεται στη δράση της καφεΐνης στο Κεντρικό Νευρικό Σύστημα (CNS- Central Nervous System). Η καφεΐνη δρα ανταγωνιστικά με την αδενοσίνη στους υποδοχείς της αναστέλλοντας έτσι την αρνητική δράση που έχει η αδενοσίνη αναφορικά με τις νευροδιαβιβάσεις και την υποκειμενική αίσθηση του πόνου κατά την άσκηση.
Επίσης η καφεΐνη θεωρείται ότι μπορεί να βοηθάει στην οικονομία του γλυκογόνου καθώς βοηθάει να ενεργοποιηθούν και να απελευθερωθούν στο αίμα ελεύθερα λιπαρά οξέα.
Επίσης έχουν προταθεί και άλλες θεωρίες όπως η αυξημένη κινητοποίηση του ασβεστίου, μεγαλύτερη δραστηριότητα της αντλίας Na+/K+,
Ευρεία Χρήση της Καφεΐνης στον αθλητισμό
Μετά την απομάκρυνση της καφεΐνης από την λίστα των απαγορευμένων ουσιών έγιναν αρκετές μελέτες από επιστημονικές ομάδες ώστε να διαπιστωθεί εάν και σε τι βαθμό οι αθλητές χρησιμοποιούν την καφεΐνη για αύξηση της αθλητικής τους απόδοσης.
Ερευνητές από την Ισπανία έκαναν μετρήσεις καφεΐνης σε ούρα τα οποία είχαν συλλεγεί σε εθνικούς και διεθνείς αγώνες από το 2004 έως το 2008 για να υποβληθούν σε έλεγχο anti- doping.
Η συγκέντρωση καφεΐνης μετρήθηκε στα ούρα με την χρήση αέριου χρωματογράφου και φασματογραφίας μάζας.
Το όριο ανίχνευσης ήταν 0.1 µg•mL(-1). Τα αποτελέσματα πολύ ενδιαφέροντα:
- Το 73.8% των δειγμάτων περιείχαν καφεΐνη πάνω από το όριο ανίχνευσης.
- Το 67,3% των ούρων είχαν συγκεντρώσεις καφεΐνης λιγότερο από 5 µg•mL(-1).
- Μόνο 0,6% των δειγμάτων ούρων ξεπέρασαν το όριο για θετικό δείγμα που ίσχυε παλαιότερα, δηλαδή(12 µg•mL(-1)).
- Το Τρίαθλο παρουσίασε το μεγαλύτερο ποσοστό διείσδυσης της καφεΐνης σε υψηλές συγκεντρώσεις (3.3 ± 2.2 µg•mL(-1)) ακολουθούμενο από την ποδηλασία (2.6 ± 2.0 µg•mL(-1)) και την κωπηλασία (1.9 ± 1.4 µg•mL(-1)).
Είναι σαφές ότι η διείσδυση της καφεΐνης είναι πολύ μεγάλη στα αθλήματα αντοχής.
Αθλητικές Παρενέργειες
«Οι διαιτολόγοι, οι φυσιολόγοι της άσκησης, οι αθλητικοί προπονητές και αθλητίατροι συνιστούν συνήθως ότι οι ενήλικες και οι αθλητές που ασκούν την άσκηση να μην χρησιμοποιούν καφεΐνη επειδή είναι διουρητικό και μπορεί να επιδεινώσουν την αφυδάτωση και την υπερθερμία».(Armstrong, 2007)
Οι συγγραφείς (Armstrong, 2007) σε αντίθεση με τις δημοφιλείς πεποιθήσεις, προτείνει ότι η κατανάλωση καφεΐνης δεν έχει ως αποτέλεσμα τα εξής:
α) ανισορροπίες νερού-ηλεκτρολύτη ή υπερθερμία και
(β) μειωμένη αντοχή στην άσκηση σε θερμά κλίματα
Από τη δική μας προσωπική αθλητική και προπονητική εμπειρία έχουμε καταγράψει μεταξύ άλλων και τις εξής παρενέργειες στο Τρίαθλο και στα αθλήματα αντοχής γενικότερα:
- Αυξημένη καρδιακή συχνότητα ιδιαίτερα στην προθέρμανση του αγώνα.
- Αύξηση του επιπέδου προ αγωνιστικού άγχους.
- Δημιουργία ή αύξηση άγχους ή/και πανικού στην κολύμβηση open Water.
- Αύξηση του ρυθμού αφυδάτωσης των αθλητών με τα συμπτώματα να είναι έντονα στο δρομικό σκέλος του τριάθλου.
- Αύξηση της ευερεθιστότητας των αθλητών.
- Λάθος διαχείριση του ρυθμού στον αγώνα.
Κατανάλωση καφεΐνης στο Ironman
Σε έρευνα που έγινε το 2005 (Desbrow, 2006) στο τελικό του Ironman στη Χαβάη σε σύνολο 140 αθλητών είχαμε τα εξής αποτελέσματα/ ενδιαφέροντα ευρήματα:
- Η πλειονότητα των αθλητών [(89%) σχεδίαζε να χρησιμοποιήσει την καφεΐνη (προϊόν με καφεΐνη) αμέσως πριν ή καθ’ όλη τη διάρκεια του αγώνα.
- Τα ποτά κόλα (78%), τα καφεϊνούχα τζελ (42%), ο καφές (συνήθως πριν από τον αγώνα) (37%), τα ενεργειακά ποτά (13%) και τα δισκία NoDoz (9%) ήταν οι πιο δημοφιλείς επιλογές με καφεΐνη.
- Οι τιμές καφεΐνης και παραξανθίνης στο πλάσμα ήταν 22.3 +/- 20 micromol/L (1.7 to 98.4) and 9.4 +/- 6 micromol/L (1.8 to 28.9), αντίστοιχα. Επτά αθλητές τερμάτισαν με συγκεντρώσεις καφεΐνης στο πλάσμα πάνω 40 micromol/L. Οι τιμές πλάσματος από ελίτ αθλητές δεν διέφεραν από τους ανταγωνιστές ηλικιακών ομάδων.
- Τα επίπεδα της καφεΐνης στο πλάσμα που λήφθηκαν αμέσως μετά τον αγώνα έδειξαν ότι οι αθλητές συνήθως τελειώνουν με ποσότητες καφεΐνης που έχουν αποδειχθεί ότι βελτιώνουν την απόδοση αντοχής (δηλαδή, ~ 20 μmol / L ή μια δόση> 3 mg / kg σωματικού βάρους).
Η εργογόνος δράση στο Τρίαθλο
Είκοσι έξι αθλητές και αθλήτριες τριάθλου (14 άνδρες και 12 γυναίκες · μέσος όρος ηλικίας = 37,8 ± 10,6 έτη, συνήθης πρόσληψη καφεΐνης = 413 ± 505 mg / ημέρα, ποσοστό σωματικού λίπους = 14,5 ± 7,2% και προπόνηση / εβδομάδα = 12,8 ± 4,5 hr) συμμετείχαν σε αυτή τη μελέτη (διπλή τυφλή, τυχαιοποιημένη, crossover δοκιμή πεδίου). (Potgieter, S., Wright, H. H., & Smith, C. (2018)).
Έλαβαν 60 λεπτά πριν τον αγώνα 6mg/kg. Η λήψη( καφεΐνης είχε ως αποτέλεσμα μείωση 3,7% στο χρόνο κολύμβησης (33,5 ± 7,0 έναντι 34,8 ± 8,1 λεπτά, p <.05) και μείωση 1,3% στο χρόνο μέχρι την ολοκλήρωση του αγώνα ολυμπιακής απόστασης (149,6 ± 19,8 έναντι 151,5 ± 18,6 λεπτά, p <. 05).
Οι Συγγραφείς αναφέρουν στα συμπεράσματά τους “ Συνιστούμε στους αθλητές τριάθλου με σχετικά χαμηλή συνήθη πρόσληψη καφεΐνης να καταναλώνουν 6 mg / kg (mg καφεΐνης ανά κιλό σωματικού βάρους), 45-60 λεπτά πριν από την έναρξη του Ολυμπιακού τριάθλου για να βελτιώσουν την απόδοσή τους”.
Άλλοι ερευνητές (Getzin, 2017) προτείνουν μικρότερη ποσότητα δηλαδή 3mg/kg.
Έρευνα στην Ελλάδα
Εμείς ως Triathlon Lab ζητήσαμε διαμέσου διαδικτύου (τέλη Αυγούστου και αρχές Σεπτεμβρίου) σε αθλητές αντοχής (τριαθλητές, δρομείς, ποδηλάτες, κολυμβητές) να απαντήσουν σε ηλεκτρονικό ερωτηματολόγιο που είχαμε συντάξει. Τα αποτελέσματα πολύ ενδιαφέροντα και τα παρουσιάζουμε σύντομα. Στο webinar θα παρουσιαστούν τα αποτελέσματα από ένα πολύ μεγαλύτερο δείγμα αθλητών που θα συλλέξουμε μέχρι και Δευτέρα 1η Φεβρουαρίου 15:00).
Από τα ροφήματα και σκευάσματα καφεΐνης ο καφές είναι το πιο δημοφιλές σε καθημερινή κατανάλωση με ποσοστό 92,86% (Ερώτηση : «Ροφήματα & σκευάσματα καφεΐνης που καταναλώνετε σχεδόν καθημερινά -πολλαπλές απαντήσεις») . Ακολουθεί το τσάι με μόλις 14,29% να απαντούν ότι το καταναλώνουν καθημερινά, ενώ αναψυκτικά με καφεΐνη, gel με καφεΐνη καθώς ενεργειακά ποτά δεν κατάφεραν το καθένα από αυτά να συγκεντρώσει ποσοστό πάνω από 10%.
Ο καφές όπως είναι γνωστό είναι η πιο ευρέως ψυχοδιεγερτική ουσία στον κόσμο και περιέχει πάνω από 1000 διαφορετικές ενώσεις.
Συχνότητα κατανάλωσης καφέ
Το 50% καταναλώνει/ πίνει καφέ 2 φορές μέσα στην ημέρα, το 25% καταναλώνει καφέ 3 φορές μέσα στην ημέρα και το 21,43% μόνο μία φορά την ημέρα. Όπως αποδεικνύεται το σχεδόν 100% των ερωτηθέντων αθλητών πίνουν συστηματικά καθημερινά καφέ.
Ώρες κατανάλωσης του καφέ
Η συντριπτική πλειοψηφία πίνει καφέ το πρωί και καθώς προχωρά η ημέρα η κατανάλωση καφέ μειώνεται.
Ώρες κατανάλωσης καφέ:
- 8:00 με 12:00 – 92,86%
- 12:00 με 16:00 – 50,00%
- 16:00 με 20:00 – 35,71%
- 20:00 με 24:00 – 10,71%
Λόγοι κατανάλωσης καφέ
Στην ερώτηση γιατί καταναλώνουν καφέ και με τη δυνατότητα πολλαπλών απαντήσεων ξεχωρίζουμε με μεγάλη διαφορά την απάντηση που αφορά την απόλαυση του ροφήματος με ποσοστό 85,71%.
Οι απαντήσεις είναι οι εξής:
- Απόλαυση ροφήματος – 85,71%
- Νοητική εγρήγορση – 50,00%
- Εθισμός – 25,00%
- Βελτίωση Αθλητικής Απόδοσης – 21,43%
- Κοινωνικοί Λόγοι – 10,71%
Γνωρίζετε την ποσότητα που καταναλώνετε;
Στην ερώτηση «Γνωρίζω επ’ακριβώς την μέγιστη ποσότητα καφεΐνης που πρέπει να καταναλώνω καθημερινά”:
- Το 42,86 απάντησε «Ούτε Συμφωνώ/ Ούτε Διαφωνώ»
- Το 17,86 «Συμφωνώ»
- Το 17,86 «Διαφωνώ»
Στην ερώτηση «Γνωρίζω επ’ ακριβώς τα mg καφεΐνης που καταναλώνω καθημερινά”
- To 28,57% απάντησε «Ούτε Συμφωνώ Ούτε Διαφωνώ»
- Το 25% απάντησε «Διαφωνώ»
- Το 17,86% απάντησε «Συμφωνώ»
- Το 14,21% απάντησε «Διαφωνώ Απόλυτα»
Παρενέργειες από τη χρήση καφεΐνης
Αναφορικά με τις παρενέργειες από τη χρήση καφεΐνης οι συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα εστίασαν στις παρακάτω:
- Αυπνία – 57,14%
- Νευρικότητα – 53,57%
- Ταχυκαρδία – 46,43%
- Έντονη Διούρηση – 39,29%
- Γαστρεντερικές διαταραχές – 14,29%
Οφέλη από την χρήση καφεΐνης στην άσκηση
Αναφορικά με τις Θετικές επιπτώσεις που έχουν βιώσει οι συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα από τη χρήση καφεΐνης στον αθλητισμό έχουμε τις εξής απαντήσεις να επιλέγονται:
- Μείωση υποκειμενικής αίσθησης κόπωσης 42,86%
- Βελτίωση Συγκέντρωσης 42,86%
- Αύξηση Χρόνου Εξάντλησης 32,14%
- Βελτίωση ισχύος και αθλητικής επίδοσης 14,29%
Σύντομα συμπεράσματα
Από την σύντομη έρευνα που πραγματοποιήσαμε προκύπτουν κάποιες σημαντικές τάσεις και ενδείξεις αναφορικά από τη χρήση προϊόντων καφεΐνης από τους αθλητές αντοχής.
Ο καφές είναι το πιο δημοφιλές προϊόν με καφεΐνη στους αθλητές αντοχής που καταναλώνεται 2 με 3 φορές την ημέρα, κυρίως τις πρωινές ώρες. Η βασική αιτία κατανάλωσης όπως τουλάχιστον αποφαίνονται οι ίδιοι οι καταναλωτές είναι για την ευχαρίστηση του ροφήματος.
Στην μεγάλη πλειοψηφία τους ούτε γνωρίζουν επ’ ακριβώς την ποσότητα των mg καφεΐνης που καταναλώνουν καθημερινά ούτε την μέγιστη ποσότητα που θα μπορούσαν να καταναλώνουν.
Η Αυπνία, η νευρικότητα, ταχυκαρδία και η έντονη διούρηση είναι οι βασικές παρενέργειες που έχουν βιώσει ενώ τα βασικά οφέλη στην άσκηση που έχουν βιώσει είναι η μείωση της υποκειμενικής αίσθησης κόπωσης, η βελτίωση της συγκέντρωσης και η αύξηση του χρόνου εξάντλησης κατά την άσκηση.
Παρότι η μορφή της δειγματοληψίας όσο και η μορφή της έρευνας όσο και το μέγεθος του δείγματος δεν μπορούν να μας οδηγήσουν σε ασφαλή συμπεράσματα σίγουρα μπορούμε να δούμε σημαντικές τάσεις και πιστεύουμε ότι αξίζει τον κόπο να πραγματοποιηθεί μία περαιτέρω σχετική έρευνα.
Triathlon Lab
Υπεύθυνος Επικοινωνίας Γιάννης Ψαρέλης
Email :smartsportcoach@hotmail.com
Κινητό : 6937170260
Προτεινόμενη Βιβλιογραφία
Armstrong, L. E., Casa, D. J., Maresh, C. M., & Ganio, M. S. (2007). Caffeine, fluid-electrolyte balance, temperature regulation, and exercise-heat tolerance. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 35(3), 135-140. Ανάκτηση 1 27, 2021, από https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17620932
Cohen, B. S., Nelson, A. G., Prevost, M. C., Thompson, G. D., Marx, B. D., & Morris, G. (1996). Effects of caffeine ingestion on endurance racing in heat and humidity. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 73, 358-363. Ανάκτηση 1 27, 2021, από https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/bf02425499
Costill, D. L., Dalsky, G., & Fink, W. J. (1978). Effects of caffeine ingestion on metabolism and exercise performance. Medicine and science in sports, 10(3), 155-158. Ανάκτηση 1 27, 2021, από https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/723503
Desbrow, B., & Leveritt, M. (2006). Awareness and Use of Caffeine by Athletes Competing at the 2005 Ironman Triathlon World Championships. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 16(5), 545-558. Ανάκτηση 1 27, 2021, από https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijsnem/16/5/article-p545.xml
Desbrow, B., & Leveritt, M. (2007). Well-trained endurance athletes’ knowledge, insight, and experience of caffeine use. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 17(4), 328-339. Ανάκτηση 1 27, 2021, από https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17962708
Getzin, A. R., Milner, C., & Harkins, M. (2017). Fueling the Triathlete: Evidence-Based Practical Advice for Athletes of All Levels. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 16(4), 240-246. Ανάκτηση 1 27, 2021, από https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28696986
Goldstein, E. R., Ziegenfuss, T. N., Kalman, D., Kreider, R. B., Campbell, B., Wilborn, C., . . . Antonio, J. (2010). International society of sports nutrition position stand: caffeine and performance. Journal of The International Society of Sports Nutrition, 7(1), 5-5. Ανάκτηση 1 27, 2021, από https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-7-5
Graham, T. E. (2001). Caffeine and exercise: metabolism, endurance and performance. Sports Medicine, 31(11), 785-807. Ανάκτηση 1 27, 2021, από https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11583104
Jeukendrup, A. E. (2011). Nutrition for endurance sports: Marathon, triathlon, and road cycling. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29, 99-108. Ανάκτηση 1 27, 2021, από https://tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02640414.2011.610348
Pedersen, D. J., Pedersen, D. J., Lessard, S. J., Coffey, V. G., Churchley, E. G., Wootton, A. M., . . . Hawley, J. A. (2008). High rates of muscle glycogen resynthesis after exhaustive exercise when carbohydrate is coingested with caffeine. Journal of Applied Physiology, 105(1), 7-13. Ανάκτηση 1 27, 2021, από https://physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/japplphysiol.01121.2007
Potgieter, S. (2013). The effect of caffeine supplementation on Olympic-distance triathletes and triathlon performance in the Western Cape, South Africa. Ανάκτηση 1 27, 2021, από http://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/80060
Potgieter, S., Wright, H. H., & Smith, C. (2018). Caffeine Improves Triathlon Performance: A Field Study in Males and Females. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 28(3), 228-237. Ανάκτηση 1 27, 2021, από https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29345161
Tarnopolsky, M. A., Atkinson, S. A., MacDougall, J. D., Sale, D. G., & Sutton, J. R. (1989). Physiological responses to caffeine during endurance running in habitual caffeine users. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21(4), 418-424. Ανάκτηση 1 27, 2021, από https://europepmc.org/abstract/med/2674593
Wilson, P. B. (2016). Dietary and non-dietary correlates of gastrointestinal distress during the cycle and run of a triathlon. European Journal of Sport Science, 16(4), 448-454. Ανάκτηση 1 27, 2021, από https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26222930
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